Fig. 1

SD- or RSD-induced L/M deficits, neuroinflammation, and Aβ accumulation in the brain of adult zebrafish. For sleep deprivation (SD), zebrafish were exposed to extended light for 72 h (3 days). After SD, the fish had a 4-day recovery period with a normal sleep–wake pattern (SD (R)). Repetitive sleep deprivation (RSD) involved five repeated cycles of SD (R). A Experimental schematic illustration of SD, SD (R), and RSD. B Graphs represent the contextual L/M test, showing altered crossing times compared to those observed during the first learning session. Values represent the mean ± SEM (n = 9–11/group). For statistical analysis, a within-group comparison was conducted using the Friedman ANOVA test with the original Benjamini and Hochberg false discovery rate (FDR). (^ap < 0.05, ^aap < 0.01 versus 1st learning). A two-way ANOVA with Tukey’s multiple comparisons test was performed for between-group comparisons (*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01 versus Con, ^##p < 0.01 versus SD). C–E Representative confocal images (× 40) of DAPI (blue), GFAP (C, green), S100β (C, red), IκBα (D, left, green), p65 (D, right, green), Aβ (E, left, green), pTau (E, right, green), and merged immunofluorescence staining are shown for the dorsal nucleus of the Vd or Dl region of the telencephalic area in zebrafish brain. Enlarged images are presented within white boxes. The graphs display the quantitative results for each antibody with normalization based on DAPI levels (n = 5 ~ 6/group). For statistical analysis, the Kruskal–Wallis test with the original Benjamini and Hochberg FDR was conducted (*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01 versus Con, ^#p < 0.05, ^##p < 0.01 versus SD(R))