Fig. 5

Microglial metabolic reprogramming evoked by TPF^PD is closely related to M1-type polarized cells. A Hierarchical clustering analysis and heatmap visualization of 248 differentially regulated metabolites (28 annotated and 220 unknown/nonannotated metabolites) in stimulated cells (LPS and TPF^PD) compared to those in the NSC control group. The number of biological replicates is indicated in brackets. Clear changes in the metabolic profile between stimulated and nonstimulated cells are observed. B Hierarchical clustering analysis and heatmap visualization of the 28 annotated metabolites extracted from A. Despite these subtle differences, the TPF^PD- and LPS-associated metabolic signatures are closely related. C Box plots showing the relative amount of α-ketoglutarate, succinate, fumarate, glutamate and glutathione disulfide (GSSG) in control (NSC) and in LPS- and TPF^PD-treated microglial cells. Similar decreases in the α-ketoglutarate/succinate and fumarate/succinate ratios were found in LPS- and TPF^PD-stimulated cells. Likewise, similar increases in glutamate and GSSG levels were observed under both stimulatory conditions. *p < 0.05 (Kruskal–Wallis and Wilcoxon test)